Research, Sampling, question, scedule, Research Design, Sample design

What is research?
Acc to the advanced learners dictionary of current eng. “a carefull investigation or inquiry specially through search of new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
Redman and Mory define research as “ systematize effort to gain new knowledge”

Types of research:
Descriptive vs analytical
Applied vs fundamental
Quantitative vs qualitative
Conceptual vs empirical


Research Process:

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
Fig.

1. Define research problem
2. Review concepts and theories ; Review previous research findings
3. Formulate hypothesis
4. Design research (including sample design),,,[Connected as Feed Forward with 6th ]
5. Collect data (execution)
6. Analyze data (Test hypothesis if any),,,[Gives feedback to 5th]
7. Interpret and report,,,[Gives feedback to 6th]

A) Formulating the research problem: There are basically two type of research problems, viz. ,those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. Two steps are involved in Formulating Research Problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

B) Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated , a brief summary of it should be written down. Thus, for this purpose the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem.

C) Development of working hypothesis: After this, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis. Working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical and empirical consequences.

D) Preparing the research design: Research design means defining the clear conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of a research design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.

There are several research designs , such as, experimental and non- experimental hypothesis testing. The preparation of a research design involves considering the following:

i) The means of obtaining the information;
ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection

iv) The time available for research
v) The cost factor relating to research
E) Determining the sample design: The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is probably known as the Sample Design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.

F) Collecting the data: in dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate , and hence, it becomes necessary to collect the data that are appropriate.

G) Execution of the project: if the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.

H) Analysis of data: after the data is collected the researcher has to analyze it. The analysis of data requires a no. of closely related operations such as establishment of categories , the application of these categories to raw data through coding , tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.

I) Hypothesis testing: after the data has been analyzed , the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary?

J) Generalization and interpretation: if a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times , it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.

K) Preparation of the report or thesis: finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.


Problems encountered by researchers in India:
Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research: there is paucity of competent researchers. Most of the researchers are doing research work without knowing research methods.
There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and business establishments , govt. deptts. And research institutions on the other side.
Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers.





Types of Sampling:
Deliberate sampling
- Convenience sampling
- Judgment sampling
Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Quota sampling
Cluster/ area sampling
Multi stage sampling
Sequential sampling



Research Design
Exploratory R.D.
The major emphasis on discovery of ideas. RD should b flexible.
i) The survey concerning lit. : hyp. Stated by earlier workers may b reviwed.
ii) The experience survey: survey of people who hav had practical experience with the prob to b studied
iii) The analysis of insight stimulating examples: it consists of intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested.

Descriptive / Diagnostic Research Studies:
Descriptiv studies r concerned with describing the charcterstics of particular individual, group, … Diagnostic determine the frequency with which something occurs.
From the point oif RD both share common requirements:
- Researcher must b able to define what he wants to measure and ways to measure
- Procedure used must b carefully planed

The design:
a) Formulatin the objective of the study. ( what the study is about?)
b) Designing the methods of data collection. ( What technioques of gathering data wil b adopted?)
c) Selectin the sample. (how much material wil b needed?)
d) Collectin the data. (where can the required data b found?)
e) Processsin n analysin the data.
f) Reportin the findings.


Steps in sample design:
Type of universe: clearly define the set of objects, technically called the universe to be studied.
Finite universe/ infinite universe
Sampling Unit; may b geog. One , state , district, etc. / constructio0n unit- house, etc, social unit- family, etc.
Source list; also called ‘sampling frame’ from which the samople is to be drawn.
Size of the sample: take care of costs also
Parameters of the interest: for eg. We may b intrstd in estimatin the proportion of the persons with some characterstic in the population.
Budgetary Constraint:
Sampling procedure: techniq to b used in selectin the items for the sample



Sequential sampling:
when a particular lot is 2 b accepted or rejected on the basis of 1 sample, it is cald single sampling,,,,double sampling,,,,but the no. of samples is more than 2 and not decided in advance , Sequential sampling.


Questionnaires
Merits:
Low cost
Free frm bias of the interviwer
Respondents hav time
Easily approachable
Large samples, greater accuracy
Demerits
Low rate of return
Respondents should b educated
Very rigid, cant b changed
Ambiguous replies
Slowest of all

Main aspects of Questionnaires
General form: structured/ un structured
Question sequence:
Ques. Formulation and wording

Essentials of a good Questionnaires

Short and simple
Ques. In logical sequence
No technical terms
Ques. Affecting sentiments avoided
Adequate space 4 ans
Direction to fil
Indication of uncertainity
Attractive looks


Difference between Questionnaires N Schedules
Questionnaires Sent thru mail, sched. Filed by researcher
Questionnaires is cheap,,,,Scd, exp.
Non response high in case of ques.
It is not clear who is replyin
Ques. Is slow
Personal contact not possible
Respondents should b literate

Guidelines for constructing good Questionnaires

Keep in mind the prob
Appropriate questions
Rough draft
Re examine
Pilot study
Staright forward questions